The Pyramid in Egypt 

        Ancient conquerors and travelers were enthralled by the Egyptian pyramids, and today's tourists, mathematicians, and archeologists who visit, investigate, measure, and describe them are still in awe of them.

Mastabas, or bench-shaped mounds, were used as the early Egyptian monarchs' tombs. Imhotep, King Djoser's architect, constructed the first pyramid around 2780 BCE by stacking six mastababas, each smaller than the one below, to create a pyramid that rose in steps. This Step Pyramid is located at Sakkara, close to Memphis, on the western bank of the Nile River. It has a number of rooms and tunnels, including the king's burial chamber, just like later pyramids.

        Under the rule of King Snefru, the Fourth Dynasty's founder, the Step Pyramid was converted into a real, smooth-sided pyramid (2680–2560 BCE). A step pyramid was constructed at Medum, then it was filled with stone and capped with a limestone casing. At Bahshur, close by, work has already started on what appears to be a pyramid with smooth sides. The sides climb less steeply and the angle of incline falls from approximately 51 degrees to roughly 43 degrees halfway up, earning it the nickname "the Bent Pyramid." Most likely, the angle was changed during construction to increase the stability of the building. At Dahshur, a second large pyramid was constructed, and its sides rose at an angle of around 43 degrees.

        Khufu, also known as Cheops, the later Greek form of Snefru's name, erected the Great Pyramid at Giza, the largest and most well-known of all the pyramids. The pyramid's base was more than 13 acres in size, and its sides were more than 755 feet long, rising at an angle of 51 degrees 52 minutes. It is currently 450 feet tall, compared to its former height of nearly 481 feet. The average weight of its stone blocks, according to scientists, is over two tons, with the largest ones weighing up to fifteen tons each. At Giza, two other large pyramids were constructed for Khafre (Chephren), King Khafu's son, and Menkaure, Khafre's successor (Mycerinus). The famed Sphinx, a huge statue of a lion, is also in Giza.

         Pyramids were not standalone structures; they were a part of a complex that included contained temples, chapels, additional tombs, and substantial walls. Funerary boat remains have also been discovered, with Giza having the highest preservation. The Pyramid Texts, a significant repository of knowledge about Egyptian religion, are inscriptions found on the walls of Fifth and Sixth Dynasty pyramids. Yet, it is challenging to be certain of the specific burial practices or the uses of all the structures in the pyramid complex due to the dearth of historical records. The king's body is believed to have been transported by boat up the Nile to the location of the pyramid, where it was likely mummified at the Valley Temple before being interred.

         Pyramid construction has given rise to rumors. The rather soft stone may have been cut using the copper chisels, drills, and saws that the Egyptians had at their disposal. A more challenging issue would have arisen from the use of the hard granite for the walls of the burial chambers and some of the outer casing. Using the drills and saws, workers may have employed an abrasive powder, such as sand. The orientation of the pyramids to the cardinal points required astronomical knowledge, and the perimeter was likely leveled with water-filled trenches. Large stone slabs were dragged on sledges over ground that was first made slick by liquid, as depicted in a tomb picture of a gigantic statue being lifted. The blocks were then transported to their placements inside the pyramid by way of ramps.

        The Giza plateau itself served as the primary source of quarried stone for the Giza pyramids. Some of the limestone casing was shipped over the Nile from Tura, while some of the rooms had granite from Aswan as the casing. Many of the stone blocks include marks from the quarry workers that are inscribed with the names of the work gangs, such as "craftman-gang." The year-round masons and other specialized employees were likely supported by crews of part-time workers. While modern estimates of the labor force tend to be significantly lower, the Greek historian Heroditus said that in the fifth century BCE, 100,000 men were employed for three months each year for twenty years to build the Great Pyramid.

        The Fourth through Sixth Dynasties saw the peak of pyramid construction. Well after the first millennium, smaller pyramids were still being constructed. Many of them have been found, but many more likely still have their bodies buried beneath the sand. Later rulers were interred in secret tombs carved into rock cliffs as it became obvious that the pyramids did not offer protection for the mummified bodies of the kings but rather were obvious targets for grave robbers. Although the Egyptian rulers who built the majestic pyramids did not have their bodies protected by them, the pyramids have succeeded in perpetuating their names and histories.